Evidence of geoelectrical resistivity values on groundwater conditions in Wadi El Natrun and its vicinities, West Delta, Egypt (cases studies)

Recently, Wadi El Natrun and its surroundings have witnessed intensive investments in land reclamation, including the arbitrary drilling of hundreds of groundwater wells. Currently, serious hydrogeological and environmental problems have been addressed, such as groundwater quality degradation and water head drop. Electrical resistivity measurements were performed at six locations across the study area to assess its ability to reveal the heterogeneous subsurface stratigraphic and hydrogeological setting of groundwater aquifer(s). The geoelectrical results successfully reflect the current vulnerable hydrogeological setting of the study sites. The current study highlights the current practice in which farmers rely on isolated 1-dimensional vertical electrical sounding (1D VES), which is not the only exploration tool for such electrically conductive stratigraphic succession. One of the main findings is addressing the advantage of applying 2-dimensional electrical resistivity imaging (2D ERI), where it offers a more robust view of both vertical and lateral variation of the investigated subsurface section (Case 3). On the other hand, the Geographic Information System (GIS) could mirror the present groundwater potentiality status, where both GIS analysis and resistivity results coincide, and where the good potentiality zone is restricted to the west and southwest directions of the study area (area of interest (aoi)), where the resistivity values of water bearing are relatively high and lie on the main drainage (Cases 2, 5, and 6). On the contrary, poor potentiality zones are deemed because of their proximity to tiny attributers, and are characterized by low resistivity values (Cases 1, 3 & 4), Finally, the current research study demonstrates the significance of combining morphometrical analysis with geophysics techniques for such environmental problems, where groundwater is primarily controlled by geomorphological features and geological conditions, including lithology and geological structures.

Many state plans are focused on transforming the wadi El Natrun into agricultural, industrial, and residential centers for the benefit of the densely populated Nile Delta. Groundwater is considered to be the main water resource for any of such activities for developments. In the last two decades, serious hydrogeological and environmental problems have been raised 1,2 . El Natrun and Nubariya were founded as a result of the rapid expansion of reclaimed lands and inhabited area. The scarcity of fresh water, combined with a large reduction in groundwater levels, has raised demand for groundwater, exposing water resources to threat in both type and amount 1,[3][4][5] . The aim of this research is to assess the potential of geoelectrical investigations to expose the diverse subsurface stratigraphic and hydrogeological settings of groundwater aquifers (s) in various case studies throughout the study region. 1D VES is the most often used approach in most groundwater research, as detailed in many publications [6][7][8][9][10] , where the resistivity method is particularly sensitive to subsurface structure exchange. Several research projects have been conducted in Wadi El Natrun and its environs, but groundwater conditions still require more investigation.
A Geographic Information System (GIS) also allows for the efficient management and integration of massive volumes of geographical and temporal data. This will help to narrow down the promising zones for additional hydrogeological and geophysical studies on the ground, ultimately finding the promising drilling sites. As a result, the incorporation of GIS serves as a critical tool in the successful regional evaluation of groundwater pollution zones 11 . Furthermore, in a place with difficult geology, such as Wadi El Natrun, using traditional www.nature.com/scientificreports/ Geologically, the study area ( Fig. 3a) has been discussed by several authors, e.g. [13][14][15][16][17][18] . Generally, the region west of the Nile Delta is covered by extensive exposures of sedimentary successions belonging to Tertiary and Quaternary ages. The southern and western portions of Wadi El Natrun depression are dominated by Tertiary sediments (Pliocene and Miocene). They are characterized by sand and sandstone with clay and limestone intercalations. Pliocene sediments have a wide distribution in the Wadi El Natrun depression and the adjacent areas.
Due to Said 12 , El Moghra formation belongs to the Early Miocene and it is composed of sand, sandstone and clay interbeds with vertebrate remains and silicified wood. This formation is represented south and west of Wadi El Natrun. The Quaternary deposits cover wide stretches of the area and are detected in water wells and it distinguished into different types such as aeolian sands, lagoonal deposits, deltaic deposits, and crust. The aeolian sands are found in the lowland area of the big depressions of Wadi El-Natrun. To understand how some distant points may be clustered together, it was reported that the Pliocene sediments were affected by several (NW-SE) faults which bound it in the east with a downthrown side towards the north east 21 . Figure 3b as well, the depression was bounded from the south and west by Clysmic faults (NW-SE) with downthrown side to the northeast that facilitates the hydraulic linking between the Pliocene and Delta Aquifer 22 . These faults connect the Pliocene with the Miocene aquifer south enhancing groundwater flow from the SE to NW 18,22,20 .
El Sheikh 15,23 categorized the aquifers of Wadi El Natrun hydrogeologically into three distinct waterbearing formations to the west and north of Wadi El Natrun. These are the Pleistocene, Pliocene, and Miocene aquifers 24,25 . The Pleistocene aquifer is located between the Nile's Rosetta branch and the eastern parts of wadi El Natrun, which slopes gradually eastward and northward. The main aquifer is composed of Pleistocene layers of Nile sands and gravels with thin bands of clay. The aquifer thickness begins at about 150 m near Wadi El Natrun and gradually increases eastward until it reaches about 300 m. The Pleistocene aquifer's groundwater is largely under a free water table and/or semi-confined condition. The groundwater quality of the Pleistocene aquifer varies between fresh and slightly brackish 22,26,27 .
A shallow Pliocene aquifer is observed in the north due to seepage from surface water canals which deepen southward to reach about 40 m near the border of Wadi El Natrun. Its maximum thickness is about 140 m, while the penetrated thickness varies between 100 and 130 m. The sediments are widely distributed in a number of localities and are mostly built up of clay underlying the Pleistocene aquifer 15 . The quality of the Pliocene groundwater ranges generally between fresh and slightly brackish water 1 .
Moghra formation of Early Miocene sediments has excellent occurrences in a number of locations, including Gebel El Hadid, Dahr El Tashash, Khashm El Kaoud, and northwest of Wadi El Farigh. It is made up of sand, sandstone, and clay lenses, and serves as an excellent aquifer, and various water wells have been dug in it. The deep water of the Miocene aquifer is accounted for by this high structure; the water level is sloping westward 28 . The quality of the Miocene groundwater varies by region. It is normally fresh in the southern regions, where direct recharge comes from the Nile Delta's west, and reasonably fresh to brackish in Wadi El Natrun and its western parts 29 .
A recent study by 1 (2020) involved That the majority of water well samples in Wadi El Natrun and surroundings fall into one of two categories (Na-Cl-HCO3 and Na-Cl-SO4). The water type changes with distance from the depression axis: when one gets closer to the depression, the water changes to the Na-Cl-SO4 type. Salinization (Na-Cl-SO4 rich) may have occurred locally as a result of the depression's mixing of paleowater and Nile  Methods. The Schlumberger array setup was utilized to acquire 18 VES measurements. This array's configuration has been shown in several publications, including 11,30 . The maximum current electrode (AB) spacing ranging from 1000 to 1500 m. Terameter SAS 1000 was used to measure the apparent resistivity of the subsurface layers. The collected data was utilized to evaluate the electrical characteristics of subsurface models (thicknesses and real resistivities) 7 . To develop the first model and calibrate the acquired data, a number of available wells from the analysed instances are employed. The measured VES were inverted using the Programme IX1D, which Interpex Limited patented in 2001 and 2002 31 . The inverted data was represented in geoelectrical cross sections and contour maps. 1D VE soundings were conducted at six distinct places throughout the Wadi El Natrun depression to better understand the underlying architecture and groundwater conditions in such situations. In the first scenario, two VESes are performed near to the drilling well (1), and the cross-section A-A' is built going NE-SW (Fig. 4a).  www.nature.com/scientificreports/ Cases 2 and 6 are located in the western and southern portions of the Wadi El Natrun basin, respectively. 3 VE soundings are performed and joined together in B-B′ and F-F' cross-sections that run NW-SE and pass via wells (8) and (6), respectively (Fig. 4e,f). In these cases, the maximum current electrode spacing is 1500 m to reach a depth of roughly 150-180 m (Fig. 4). In the third and fifth cases, 6 VE soundings were performed along the built cross sections C-C′ and E-E′, as illustrated in Fig. 4c,d. Cases 3 and 5's interpretation data were calibrated using Wells 3 and 5. Furthermore, because of the recorded lateral facies change, one (2D ERI) was done, specifically on case 3, to complement the picture of the subsurface structure of this case. The Syscal Junior equipment is used to conduct a 2D ER imaging profile in the NW-SE direction with 10 m interval spacing between 72 electrodes using wenner array in NW-SE direction. According to 18,32,33 , "there are many reasonable reasons to employ 2D ERI, which is frequently used for hydrogeological investigations and environmental challenges." 2D ERI measurements were inverted using L1-norm inversion using Res2dinv.
The GIS approach is based on the advanced space-borne thermal emission and reflection radiometer (ASTER), which generates a digital elevation model (DEM) with a spatial resolution of + 30 m and was utilized in this work to assess surface runoff recharging and movement. This approach is commonly used to generate runoff potential maps for small to medium-sized involved drainage basins. The drainage network, according to Mark 29 , is defined as the sites at which surface runoff is linked and concentrated by slope mechanisms. There are several ways to obtain drainage networks, including topographic maps, aerial photography, field studies, satellite imagery, and, more recently, digital elevation models. ArcGIS v10.4.1 was used to apply hydrology tools to handle the fill of all sinks in the resultant mosaic raster. DEM analysis was used to determine flow direction, basins, stream orders, slopes, and shaded relief 34 .

Results and discussion
The resistivity method was chosen in this study due to its sensitivity to water salinity and clay content which plays an important role in predicting the groundwater potentialities as resistivity decreases when the salinity increases. As many authors reported in their publications that if clays are present in the soil, the value of the resistivity decreases 33,35,36 . Case 1. This case is located east wadi El Natrun particularly in Bani Salama area (Fig. 5). Drilling has revealed that the majority of the succession is formed of clay and sandy clay, which has an influence on the resistivity www.nature.com/scientificreports/ values of the water. The water level is approximately 15 m below the ground surface, and the salinity is greater than 5000 ppm. The first model for data calibration was created using drilling data of Well 1. Five geoelectrical layers were resulted from the inverted two VESes along A-A′ cross section. The resistivity values in the first layer range from 20 to 50 Ωm, and the relative changes are connected to the sorting of the grain size of the sand and clay content, which reduces the resistivity values. The thickness ranges between 1.5 and 2.5 m. The next four layers are recorded as partially saturated to fully saturated with water with intercalation clay interbed (well drilling information), whereas the second and fourth layers are recorded as low resistivity layers of varying thickness. At VES 1, the second layer has resistivity values ranging from 5 to 10 Ωm with a thickness of 2-5 m, while the fourth layer has resistivity values less than 0.5 m with a thickness of 15 m (around 28 m depth). These strata are made up of clay and marl that has been saturated with saltwater water (high clay content). The third layer, on the other hand, was found to have a low resistivity (10-20 Ωm) and thickness (15-25 m). This layer is confirmed by well 1, which is made up of fine sand and silt and has a water level of 5-8 m. The last layer is found at a depth of 100-150 m and has low resistivity values observed (5-10 Ωm). The high clay content within the fine sand layers is responsible for the relatively low resistivity in that section of Wadi El Natrun and, as a result, the restriction of groundwater potential (Fig. 5).

Case 2.
It is located in the south-west of Wadi El Natrun. The water level exists at a depth range from 120 to 160 m, and the salinity is > 2700 ppm. Well 8 was used to create the initial model for data calibration. The results of the interpretation are four geoelectrical layers along B-B′ cross section (Fig. 6). The first layer is composed of three dry sublayers of sand and gravel with resistivity values of 50-567 Ωm and its thickness varies between 5 and 35 m. The second layer is also dry and has resistivity values varying between 60 to 720 Ωm, but its thickness is recorded at 55-120 m. Both layers began at a depth of 35 m and ended at a depth of 120-160 m, and they are considered the unsaturated zone that overlies the Miocene aquifer at this location. The third layer is representing the saturated zone (water bearing layer) where its resistivity is less than 50 Ωm and its thickness ranges between Case 3. This case is located to the northwest of Wadi El Natrun. The fundamental issue in this area is that groundwater wells are suffering from increasing water salinity over time, which has a significant influence on the quality and quantity of the ensuing crop. The water level is between 33 and 35 m deep. The salinity of groundwater increased from 900 ppm in 2014 to 2700 ppm in 2020 2 . The original model for data calibration of 1D and 2D electrical resistivity imaging was created using Well 3. C-C′ cross-section was created by assembling five VESes (v1, v2, v3, v4, v5) in the SE-NW direction (Fig. 7). In contrast, 2D ERI of profile 1 was performed in the crossing direction (NE-SW) to follow the facies changes. The findings of both the 1D and 2D ER interpretations revealed the presence of five geoelectrical layers. The first layer has resistivity values ranging from 50 to 100 m and fluctuates between 1.5 and 33 m, and it is followed by a layer with quite high resistivity values ranging from 130 to 150 m. This layer of saturated sandstone with fresh water has a thickness of 15-20 m, where the third layer has a 20 m saturated layer of sandy clay at a depth of 60-65 m, separated by a 5 m clay layer. The saturated sand layer has an interbedded clay lens, lowering the resistivity to < 5 Ωm. An extremely low resistivity layer of 1 Ωm with a thickness of 50 m at a depth of 80 m was observed by the interpretation. Due to available well drilling information, this layer is mainly clay. Due to the reported low resistivity value (5Ωm), the fifth layer recorded was a saturated layer with salty water. This layer was found at a depth of 150 m and has a thickness of more than 60 m.  www.nature.com/scientificreports/ aquifer (second layer). This layer, which didn't reach its full thickness, is regarded the second aquifer (Miocene Aquifer) of sands and gravel with clay lenes. It is found at a depth of 135-140 m.

Case 5.
This case is at the southern section of the Wadi El Natrun-El Alamein Road (Fig. 9). This region is 4200 m long and 150 m wide, parallel to the El Natrun-El Alamein Desert Road. Water level is recorded at 82 m due to the accessible drilling well inside the study case, and the water bearing is associated to the Pliocene aquifer, which is formed of sand, sandy clay, and coarse sand with clay interbed intercalation. Cross-section E-E' was created by collecting 6 VESes (v1, v2, v3, v4, v5, and v6) in the NE-SW direction to show the facies variations in both lateral and vertical dimensions. According to the findings, the subsurface succession is made up of three major units. The first layer (Unit A) has a relative resistivity of 9-1700 Ωm and a thickness of 2.1-6 m. This layer is characterized by a large range of resistivity values, which is related to facies alterations (changes from clay to sandy clay to sand). The second layer (Unit B) is considered unsaturated due to resistivity values ranging between 14 and 960 Ωm and a thick layer (80-98 m). As illustrated in Fig. 9 along cross-section E-E′, the low resistivity value of 14 Ωm shows the intercalation of clay layers with sand and gravel beds. The third layer (Unit C) is classified as the saturated zone, and it is separated into three subunits (C1, C2, and C3) based on resistivity values, which indicate water quality (decrease with depth). Unit C1 is the best waterbearing layer (sandstone and sand deposits), with thicknesses ranging from 75 to 80 m and resistivity values ranging from 25 to 38 Ωm. Otherwise, the other subunits C2 and C3 are made up of sand deposits with clay bed intercalation, as the resistivity values in unit C2 decline from 16 to13 Ωm and from 12 to 9 m in subunit C3. The thickness of subunit C2 varies between 36 and 40 m. According to geochemical study, the salinity of the accessible water wells ranges between 3500 and 4100 ppm, which is corroborated by the results of decreasing resistivity values of saturated layers, particularly at subunits C2 and C3, where the clay content increases with depth. Case 6. This case occurred southwest of Wadi El Natrun. The elevation at this site is between 140 and 150 m above sea level, according to the digital elevation map [DEM] (Fig. 2b). The waterbearing layer (Miocene aquifer) is located at great depths due to the nearby water well (Well 6). (165-180 m). The initial model was based on www.nature.com/scientificreports/ Well 6. The F-F cross section was designed to connect the three VESes (V1, V2, and V3) and identify changes in the facies in both vertical and lateral directions (Fig. 10). The NW-SE F-F′ cross-section is made up of four main units that are covered by a weathered layer of fine sand. The first layer is made up of three dry layers of sand and gravel with resistivity values ranging from 70 to 1400 Ωm and a thickness ranging from 5 to 25 m. Furthermore, the second layer is dry and has resistivity values ranging from 50 to 2000 Ωm, while its thickness is measured at 125-150 m. This layer began at a depth of 25 m and extended at a depth of 165-180 m, and it is the unsaturated zone that overlies the Miocene aquifer at this location. The third layer is the saturated zone (waterbearing layer), which has a resistivity of less than 50 Ωm, a thickness of 50-65 m, and a depth of 220-230 m. Because of the low resistivity value (15 Ωm), the last layer (fourth layer) is classified as clay or clayey sand. Figure 11a,b highlight the key findings from the 1D VES interpretation. The results are shown in 3D, with 4-6 primary layers under the case studies. The distribution of layer thicknesses is shown in Fig. 11a, whereas the distribution of resistivity values of layers is shown in Fig. 11b. In this study, the groundwater potentiality is primarily determined by parameters such as porosity, hydraulic conductivity, permeability, and clay content. The second layer is considered the promising waterbearing layer in cases 3, 4, and 1 which is related to Pleistocene and Pliocene aquifers of sediments rich in clay content, where layer 3 exhibits low resistivity values in north and east directions, but the thickness increases for the three cases. Cases 2, 5, and 6, on the other hand, are associated with the Miocene aquifer of sand and gravel deposits with clay lenses, as illustrated in Fig. 11, where the thickness of the clay layers decreases in the west and southwest directions. Based on the evidence of the geoelectrical resistivity value ((50 Ωm) of the waterbearing layer, the potentiality of groundwater in these localities is considered the best in the Wadi El Natrun districts. , and Basin 17) as well as a few minor drainages (b11, b12, b13, and b14) that drain into the El Natrun basin (Fig. 12b,c). As shown in Table 1, the area is divided into two sections: the area of interest (aoi) and the area out of interest (auoi). Figure 12d depicts the aoi of the overlapping stream orders of Wadi El Natrun basin and its subbasins, which comprise the most study cases (cases 1, case 3, case 4, case 5), and basin 8, which contains cases 2 and 6. Basin remnants, on the other hand, are regarded as (auoi). The area's topographic slope emphasizes its significance in influencing surface water flow. The slope level analysis separated the research area into four levels: extremely gentle 4°, gentle 4°-7°, moderate 7°-12°, and strong 12°-55° (Fig. 12e). The majority of the research area is gentle.
As a result of morphometric analysis, all study cases are located on a moderate slope, except cases 5 and 6, which are located on a gentle slope level (Fig. 12f). The surface runoff is slow in the nearly level slope area (0-4) degrees, allowing more time for rainwater to percolate and be considered a good groundwater potential zone, whereas the strong slope area (12-55) degrees facilitates high runoff, allowing less residence time for rainwater, resulting in comparatively less infiltration and poor groundwater potential. shade map is very important in this study, where it clarifies the elevation models overlapping the main basins as shown in Fig. 12f, which is the main www.nature.com/scientificreports/ direction for water flow in the aoi. The aoi drainage density network was depicted in Fig. 12c. During the rainy season, the density of the drainage network reveals its influence on basin refilling via surface runoff. Limited drainage density has been shown to occur more frequently in areas that are extremely resistive to highly permeable subsurface material under thick vegetative cover and when relief is low. High drainage density is caused by impermeable or weak underlying material, scarce vegetation, and hilly terrain. Cases 2 and 6 show coarse drainage textures due to low drainage density, whereas case1 shows fine drainage textures due to high drainage density. The drainage density is proportional to the amount of runoff in a given region, or, in other words, the quantity of relative precipitation. As a result, the lower the drainage density, the greater the probability of recharge or potential groundwater zone (Cases 2, 5, and 6). The drainage map is split into eight orders, as shown in Fig. 12c. Figure 12f displayed the direction of water flow in the investigated (aoi), the recharge of Wadi El Natrun is mainly coming from southeast and west while the second (aoi) (basin no.8) is mainly coming from east and southwest towards the west direction.
Groundwater condition. The current study found that the use of the resistivity method (1D VES) validates the subsurface hydrogeological setting of the studied cases on the phenomena of facies changes and the percentage of clay content with respect to aquifer ages, and is consistent with the findings of Salem 28 . The subsurface lithologic setting models of the six study cases utilized for the calibration of the interpretation of the geoelectrical data are depicted in Fig. 13. Cases 1, 3, and 4 are situated in the Pliocene age, which contains clay layers intercalated with sand lenses where, cases 2, 5, and 6, are found in a Miocene aquifer of sand and coarse gravel with a few clay lenses. Figure 14 depicts a simplified water level contour map for the cases studied. The results show two groundwater flow directions: one to the north and northwest of the study area, as determined by GIS analysis of DEM data in cases 1, 3, and 4, and one to the west in cases 2 and 6.
T he results of this study support the results of 6,22 that the principal waterbearing formations in the study area are Pleistocene, Pliocene, and Miocene sediments. In Cases 3 and 4, the Pleistocene aquifer occupies the northern portion of Wadi El Natrun basin. The Pleistocene aquifer's saturation thickness ranges from 57 m in the southwest to 334 m in the northeast. The steady increases in groundwater salinity over time are mostly the result of over-pumping and inadequate recharge. This aquifer's groundwater exists mostly under free water table conditions. In the east, the water depth exceeds 10 m. Groundwater flows usually from the east and north-west towards Wadi El Natrun depression, with isolated movements from the southeast and northeast. Such local groundwater migration trends are mostly related to over-exploitation of water to irrigate newly reclaimed lands. The Pliocene aquifer is primarily restricted to Wadi El Natrun depression and is primarily composed of clay with interbeds  (Table 2) [26][27][28] . Groundwater has been discovered at a depth of 30 m on the borders of Wadi El Natrun and is naturally flowing in the interior (Cases 1 and 4). Its productivity ranges from poor to moderate. The Miocene aquifer extends south and southwest of Wadi El Natrun and is mostly composed of coarse sands and clay lenses intercalated with water (Cases 2, 5, and 6). The saturated thickness of the Lower Miocene aquifer in the western portion exceeds 200 m 28 . The clay percentage of the Miocene saturated thickness ranges from 29.5% to zero %, based on drilling well data. The lateral facies changes are primarily responsible for the variation in hydraulic parameters laterally and vertically. The Miocene aquifer is bounded by NW-SE faults in the south Wadi El Natrun area, with its downthrown side to the east, where the Lower Miocene is uplifted opposite the Pliocene aquifer. As a result, this aquifer is hydraulically linked to the Pliocene aquifer underneath it 15 . www.nature.com/scientificreports/ This study has found that morphometric analysis using GIS and the resistivity method at the different case studies show that the good potentiality zone is restricted to the west and southwest directions of the study area represented by layers 2 and 3 at cases 2, 4, 5, and 6, where the resistivity values of water bearing are relatively high and the choice of their locations is intuitive, as in cases 2 and 6. The other cases, on the other hand, are classed as poor potentiality zones since the estimated resistivity value is low due to clay deposits. Furthermore, their sites are deemed unsuitable due to their proximity to tiny attributers. As a result, the current research study demonstrates the significance of combining morphometrical analysis and geophysics techniques for such environmental problems, where groundwater is primarily controlled by geomorphological features and geological conditions, including lithology and geological structures.  Figure 13. 3D view of the initial models (drilled water wells) of resistivity inverted models of 1D VES with the expected clay layer/lens all over the studied cases.

Conclusion
The geoelectrical resistivity approach was successfully used to determine the regional subsurface hydrogeological setting of six case studies located in the Wadi El Natrun and surroundings. When compared to other geophysical approaches, it was capable of discriminating between a wide range of hydro-geological facies. Using the resistivity method would allow for significant improvements in targeting local water supplies. The results of the resistivity measurements of 1DVES and 2DERI confirm that the groundwater setting via the different research cases is primarily determined by the phenomenon of facies alterations and the percentage of clay content with respect to aquifer ages. Cases 1, 3, and 4 are from the Pleistocene and Pliocene epochs and comprise clay layers intercalated with sand lenses where, Cases 2, 5, and 6nare situated in a Miocene aquifer of sand and coarse gravel with clay lenses. The Quaternary, Pliocene, and Miocene sediments are the most important water-bearing strata in the studied region. Finally, the integration of the results of the GIS analysis and resistivity method at the study cases revealed that the good potentiality zone is layer two and three at cases 2, 4, 5, and 6, where the evidence of resistivity values of water bearing are high and the choice of their location is favorable, where they are located at the main stream as case 2 and 6. On the other, the other cases are classified as poor potentiality zone as resistivity value recoded is low resistivity due to deposits rich with clay and their locations are not recommended, as they are located at small attributers . The authors highly recommended that 1D TEM sounding, 2DERT, and TDIP seem like better geophysical tools due to their high sensitivity to vertical and lateral changes in electrical conductivity and their ability to distinguish between clay and saline water, respectively, than the traditional DC VES method. Besides the soil and water analysis, the current study stresses the importance of performing detailed geomorphological analysis studies before the construction of new reclamation projects.